[{"name":"stockholm-historical-monthly-temperature-3","title":"Stockholm Historical Weather Observations \u2014 Monthly mean air temperatures since 1756","summary":"Data for monthly mean air temperatures at the old astronomical observatory in Stockholm from 1756 until 2020 are provided. The dataset also contains annual mean temperatures and seasonal means for winter, spring, summer and autumn.\r\n\r\nThree variants of the data are available: (1) non-homogenized monthly mean temperatures, as estimated from the local temperature observations, (2) homogenized monthly mean temperatures, adjusted after 1870 to remove the urban warming effect on the observed temperatures, and (3) homogenized monthly mean temperatures with an additional adjustment applied to data for May\u2060\u200a\u2013\u200aAugust in the period before 1859, to eliminate a supposed warm bias of the observed temperatures due to exposure of thermometers to radiation.\r\n\r\nIn the 18th century, the weather observations were made by astronomers as a part of their studies of the universe. Today, the observation site in Stockholm is a weather station within the national station network managed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI).","citations":"Moberg A, Bergstr\u00f6m H, Ruiz Krigsman J, Svanered O. 2002: Daily air temperature and pressure series for Stockholm (1756\u2060\u2013\u20601998). Climatic Change 53: 171\u2060\u2013\u2060212. DOI:10.1023\/A:1014966724670\r\n\r\nMoberg A, Alexandersson H, Bergstr\u00f6m H, Jones PD. 2003: Were Southern Swedish summer temperatures before 1860 as warm as measured? Int. J. Climatol. 23: 1495\u2060\u2013\u20601521. DOI:10.1002\/joc.945\r\n\r\nMoberg A, Tuomenvirta H, Nordli \u00d8. 2005: Recent climatic trends. In: Physical Geography of Fennoscandia. (Ed: Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 M). Oxford Regional Environments Series, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 113\u2060\u2013\u2060133","comments":"##### Observation site\r\nThe observation site is included in the national station network managed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI), with station number 98210 (manual station) and 98230 (automatic station).\r\n\r\n##### Change from manual to automatic observations in 2013\r\nData from before 2013 are based on manual observations (SMHI station 98210). Data from 2013 onward are derived from the automatic weather station (SMHI station 98230). Monthly mean temperatures presented here may differ from those that can be obtained directly from the SMHI due to differences in calculation procedures.\r\n\r\n##### Three variants of the data\r\nThe three variants of monthly, seasonal and annual mean air temperatures are derived from the associated dataset with [Daily mean temperatures](https:\/\/bolin.su.se\/data\/stockholm-historical-temps-daily-2).\r\n\r\n###### Variant 1: Non-homogenized data\r\nThe first variant (non-homogenized data, see Moberg et al. 2002) accounts for changes in observation times and also includes the following adjustments:\r\n\r\n1. Data for some periods in 1756 and 1763 have been replaced with estimated temperatures derived from contemporaneous observations in Uppsala, to adjust for missing or poor daily observations in Stockholm.\r\n2. Adjustment in 1819\u200a\u2060\u2013\u200a1825 for an incorrectly calibrated thermometer probably being used.\r\n\r\n*Note:* In the corresponding dataset with [Daily mean temperatures](https:\/\/bolin.su.se\/data\/stockholm-historical-temps-daily-2), these two particular adjustments are not applied to the non-homogenized data, but they are applied there to the homogenized data. The motivation for applying these corrections to the monthly, seasonal and annual non-homogenized data here is to provide a temperature record that represents the actual temperature history, including the urban warming trend, but with corrections made for the supposed unreliable data in short periods in 1756, 1763 and 1819\u200a\u2060\u2013\u200a1825.\r\n\r\n###### Variant 2: Homogenized data\r\nThe second variant (homogenized data, see Moberg et al. 2002) additionally includes an adjustment after 1870 to eliminate an urban warming trend and the effect of other inhomogeneities detected in homogeneity tests against surrounding reference station data. The main purpose of applying this adjustment is to obtain a homogenized record that, throughout its entire length, is approximately respresentative of the rural conditions that prevailed before the mid\u201319th century. The size of the adjustment changes with time and varies over the year. It causes homogenized temperature data after 1967 being on average 0.8\u00b0C colder than non-homogenized temperatures.\r\n\r\nIt should be noted that the current adjustment applied is based on results from a study made in the late 1990s. Thus, there is a need to undertake further analysis of how to better adjust the temperature data for the modern urban heat island effect all the time up to the present.\r\n\r\n###### Variant 3: Homogenized data with additional adjustment 1756\u2060\u200a\u2013\u200a1858\r\nThe third variant (homogenized data, with additional adjustment to data for May\u200a\u2013\u200aAugust in the period 1756\u2060\u200a\u2013\u200a1858), has been derived as in Moberg et al. (2005) based on conclusions in Moberg et al. (2003). It includes the following additional adjustments, relative to the second variant:\r\n\r\n* May and August: \u22120.3 \u00b0C.\r\n* June and July: \u22120.7 \u00b0C.\r\n\r\nThe motivation for this additional adjustment is based on the available knowledge about the position of the old thermometer in combination with results from homogeneity testing and other statistical modelling, supporting the hypothesis that the old thermometers were insufficiently protected against radiation, which could have caused observed tempertures in the summer season to be to high. However, this should be seen as an ad hoc judgement rather than a result from a strict statistical analysis. Nevertheless, this variant of daily mean temperatures is judged to be the one that currently best represents the true temperature climatology for the May\u2060\u2013\u200aAugust season. Further research would be required to better assess the need for adjustments in the early period and to determine their size and how they should be applied.\r\n\r\n##### Instrument positions and original data sources\r\nFurther information about instrument positions and original data sources is available in the comments to the associated dataset with [thermometer observations](https:\/\/bolin.su.se\/data\/stockholm-historical-thermometer).\r\n\r\n#### Version history\r\n##### Version 3\r\nData files in version 3 are updated to 2020. Data for 1756\u2060\u200a\u2013\u200a2019 are the same as in version 2. Data for 2020 are obtained by calculating the arithmetic averages of the associated [Daily mean air temperatures](https:\/\/bolin.su.se\/data\/stockholm-historical-temps-daily-2).\r\n\r\n##### Version 2\r\nData files in version 2 are updated to 2019, whereas data in version 1 ended in 2018. Monthly, seasonal and annual mean temperature data in version 2 are calculated as arithmetic averages of the associated [Daily mean air temperatures](https:\/\/bolin.su.se\/data\/stockholm-historical-temps-daily-2).\r\n\r\nSome monthly and annual mean temperatures in version 2 differ by 0.1 \u00b0C compared to version 1 because of differences in rounding to one decimal or differences in calculating annual mean temperatures in leap years.\r\n\r\nData in version 2 include seasonal mean temperatures, whereas these were not included in version 1.\r\n\r\nData in version 2 are provided as csv and tsv files, whereas data in version 1 are provided as tsv and txt files.\r\n\r\n##### Version 1\r\nInitial release.","category":"Atmosphere","subcategory":"Weather observations","keywords":"Air temperature; Monthly data; Early instrumental data; Homogenized data; Sweden; Stockholm","scientist":"Anders Moberg","firstname":"Anders","lastname":"Moberg","address":"Department of Physical Geography; Stockholm University","postalcode":"SE-106 91","city":"Stockholm","province":"","country":"Sweden","parameters":"Earth science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric temperature > Surface temperature > Air temperature","location":"Continent > Europe > Northern Europe > Scandinavia > Sweden","progress":"Completed","language":"English","project":"Digitization, quality control and development of daily and monthly air temperature and pressure data series until 1998 was undertaken as part of the project IMPROVE \u2014 Improved Understanding of Past Climatic Variability from Early Daily European Instrumental Sources. Project funding: EU 4th Framework Programme, 1998\u20131999. Contract: ENV4-CT97-0511. Co-ordinator: Dario Camuffo, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima, Padova, Italy. PI at Stockholm University: Anders Moberg. Later updates of the data have been made by Anders Moberg without any further dedicated funding.","publisher":"Bolin Centre Database","version":"3","constrains":"","access":"Free"}]